Commuting as a social determinant of well-being : implications for measures on mitigating job-residence imbalance in Hong Kong

Abstract

The Hong Kong government has decentralized the population from overcrowded urban areas to satellite towns since 1973. Originally expecting manufacturing factories in urban areas to be relocated to these new towns, the government relocated many socially disadvantaged people to affordable public rental housing (PRH) in these areas. However, factories during the period had mostly moved to Mainland China instead due to the relatively cheap land and labour costs, while service jobs still clustered in the central business districts, resulting in a spatial mismatch between jobs and residents. PRH residents in these areas are more susceptible to unemployment due to limited job opportunities in the local district. To tackle this problem, in 2007 the government launched the Transport Support Scheme (TSS), which provides transport allowance to job-seekers and low-income employees in four remote districts to encourage cross-district employment. Four years later, the territory-wide Work Incentive Transport Subsidy Scheme (WITSS) replaced the TSS and has become a major poverty alleviation measure in Hong Kong. However, evidence of the effectiveness of the TSS in reducing the unemployment rate and promoting cross-district employment is limited. Moreover, the impacts of long commuting time on health and life satisfaction have been largely overlooked in the policy-making process. A difference-in-difference model is used to compare the proportions of being unemployed and commuting patterns between PRH residents in the eligible and non-eligible areas before and after the launch of the TSS in study 1. It is found that the TSS has significantly improved the employment condition of the residents: the unemployment rate among PRH residents living in the four eligible districts has decreased, especially among male residents aged 45–64. Moreover, the TSS has also increased cross-district employment, especially among female residents aged 45–64. Study 2 used data on 990 commuters from the first wave Hong Kong Panel Survey for Poverty Alleviation supported by the HKJC Charities Trust in 2015 to test associations of commuting time with health outcomes and satisfaction with life. The outcomes included obesity based on self-reported body mass index (BMI), mental distress (CHQ-12), self-rated health (SRH) and satisfaction with life (SWLS-5). After adjusting for the confounding variables, commuting time over 60 minutes is associated with negative satisfaction with life, and commuting time over 90 minutes is associated with higher risk of obesity. The direct and indirect effects of commuting time on satisfaction with life is further analysed in study 3. Potential mediators, such as physical and mental health, social support, satisfaction with salary and accommodation are tested in a multiple mediation model. Satisfaction with salary is found to be the only significant mediator in the association of commuting time with satisfaction with life, while there is no evidence for other mediators. This study provides evidence for the effectiveness of the TSS. However, long commuting time also negatively influences well-being, partially mediated by satisfaction with salary. It is suggested that a more holistic perspective should be considered in evaluating policies on mitigating job-residence imbalance.