Peripheral nationalism in China and beyond : a cross-regional study of Hong Kong, the Baltic States and Kazakhstan

Abstract

This study aims to explain why peripheral regions exhibit different reactions towards their national identity. By examining Hong Kong since the colonial era, Kazakhstan and the Baltic states from Tsarist Russia to the end of the Soviet era, the research builds on previous literature on peripheral nationalism and generalizes a framework to explain the variation in the periphery's reactions given the similar immigration of the majority people in multi-ethnic authoritarian states. The study borrows the theoretical framework from integrated threats theory and Wimmer's boundary-based model of ethnic encountering. It holds that identity maintenance enjoys higher priorities than economic calculations in group interactions and proposes three corresponding scenarios. The study makes two arguments. First, whether a certain group perceives its counterpart as a threat depends on the role the reference state plays in its nation-building and maintenance process. If the reference state has long been perceived as the backward or inferior "Other," then it is more likely to be perceived as a threat. In response, the superior group would resort to boundary shrinkage to preserve their identity, which usually means the pursuit of political autonomy or even secession. Second, depending on the percentage of immigration, the degree of boundary shrinkage may vary. More immigration poses imminent materialistic threats to the native group, resulting in a more intense boundary shrinking represented in the form of extreme exclusion of the immigrant's community, whereas a lower level of immigration has little material threats to the native group, and the group shrinkage would be rather mild. The study argues that Kazakhstan's nation-building is a Soviet-assisted project, where Russians and the USSR are valued positively and placed in a higher hierarchy in Kazakhs' identity discourse, explaining their acceptance of the Soviet identity and the pursuit of a rather moderate Russian-related policy after independence amidst high Russian immigration in Kazakhstan. The Baltics, on the contrary, viewed themselves as Europeans who are superior to Russia. The hierarchy explained the Balts' rejection of Soviet identity, their ferocious and persistent resistance against Bolshevik control, and their exclusive policies towards Russia after independence. The ethnic hierarchy made Estonia and Latvia extremely sensitive to Russian threats due to the influx of Russian-speaking immigrants, which prompted their proposition of discriminatory policies against Russian residents after independence. On the other hand, Lithuania faced a lesser demographic challenge from its Russian residents, opting for a lenient policy towards them. Regarding Hong Kongers, compared to China's socioeconomic instability, British Hong Kong proved to be a superior alternative for them due to its relative stability and prosperity. The positive/negative feedback from the colonial government and mainland China became the recurring theme that dominated Hong Kongers' identity formation, which explains their contestation of the national identity and the rise of anti-mainland sentiment in response to Beijing's comprehensive integration project.