Balancing curriculum standards and high-stakes examinations : a comparative analysis of high school instruction in shadow and mainstream education in China

Abstract

Education has long been regarded as a pathway to upward social mobility in Chinese society, fostering a demand for both formal schooling and shadow education. Shadow education, defined as private tutoring that supplements mainstream schooling, has expanded significantly alongside China’s economic growth and evolving educational policies since the 1980s. However, the connection between these contextual changes and the rise of shadow education lies in its perceived effectiveness in preparing students for high-stakes exams like the Gaokao. Despite recent regulatory interventions, including bans on group tutoring, shadow education remains integral to academic success in the eyes of parents and students. This persistence reflects a critical gap in the literature: while previous research has explored the macro-level relationship between curriculum standards, exams, and instructional practices, less is known about how instructors in both mainstream and shadow education balance these competing demands at a micro level.

To address this gap, this study applies the Instruction-Balance Model (IBM), developed from the Osgood-Schramm Communication Model (OSM), to examine how school teachers and private tutors function as decoders, interpreters, and encoders of educational content. The IBM is integrated with social ecological theory to provide a holistic framework for understanding the factors driving instructors’ balancing strategies and the methods they employ to navigate the dual pressures of curriculum standards and high-stakes exams. This model was chosen for its ability to capture the dynamic and iterative nature of instructional adjustments in response to systemic pressures.

A mixed-methods approach was adopted across three phases. Phase One analyzed Gaokao exam papers (2020–2022) and 2020 curriculum standards to identify alignment issues. Based on these findings, a tailored questionnaire was developed to assess alignment challenges. Phase Two gathered data from 102 instructors, including school teachers and private tutors, through 97 completed questionnaires and 100 in-depth interviews, offering insights into their instructional practices and strategies. These participants represented 28 of China’s 34 provincial-level administrative units, ensuring broad geographical coverage. Phase Three involved live class observations via online platforms, allowing real-time analysis of teaching methods.

The findings reveal that both public school teachers and private tutors face similar challenges in aligning their instruction with curriculum standards and exam content. Their teaching practices are influenced by overlapping pressures, including the need to address diverse student abilities and the high stakes associated with Gaokao performance. Instructors engage in a cyclic process of decoding, interpreting, and encoding content, continuously adjusting their strategies to balance these demands.

This study highlights the importance of effective balancing strategies in improving alignment between curriculum standards and exams, ultimately enhancing student outcomes. By uncovering the shared and distinct challenges faced by school teachers and private tutors, this research provides actionable insights for educators and policymakers to support instructional practices amid competing pressures. The IBM offers a replicable framework for analyzing similar dynamics in other high-stakes educational contexts.